Iwai Hiromi, in Inari Shinko, talks about the native Japanese folk practices of fox possession and fox channeling, claiming their origin to be the popularity of the Inari religion and its connection to foxes. Karen Smyers also associates the two, explaining how those who had been possessed would be taken to Inari shrines in order to be cured. However, if we examine the available evidence, we find that although Inari may have contributed to these practices in later years, the practices themselves have been around since ancient times; certainly longer than Inari, and, as we shall soon see, possibly longer than the Japanese people. Where then do these traditions and practices have their origin?

Chinese sources as an origin for Japanese fox beliefs

When discussing Japanese fox traditions, many scholars tend to either make the claim that these traditions have their origin in the fox traditions of China, or else ignore Chinese influence altogether. The first is understandable. After all, China has been the source of much of Japanese culture throughout the centuries. Buddhism, writing, and many arts have all found their way to Japan via China, even when China itself was not the origin.

In relation to fox traditions, we can see many similarities in the early beliefs and practices of both cultures. In China, as in Japan, the fox was often worshipped as a god and called upon for protection; and in both places, the belief in fox possession - the notion that a fox had the power to possess a human and was often responsible for human hysteria - was widespread. Accordingly, tales of the exorcism of foxes can be found in both places.

More notable, perhaps, are the many tales and legends of supernatural foxes in Japan and China. The most famous collection of such tales is the Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio, written by the scholar Pu Songling in the early Qing dynasty. Though not exclusively about foxes, tales of foxes were the most numerous. The most common theme to be found in those tales involving foxes is the theme of a fox taking the form of a young woman in order to enchant, seduce and trick men. These tales were taken by Songling from oral sources throughout the country , and similar themes can be seen in countless other stories, dating back to the Tang period and earlier, though these tales were most popular during the Tang dynasty. When compared to Japanese folk tales involving foxes, we find huge similarities, and the Chinese origin is clearly visible. In fact, most fox tales that can be found in Japan today have their origin in China.

However, these tales are but a small, if important, part of the fox beliefs of the two cultures. Possibly their emergence helped to increase the popularity of the fox icon in Japan, and certainly strengthened the dualistic image of the fox as a good and an evil creature, which will be discussed later, but clearly these tales did not play a part in the origin of Japanese fox beliefs, nor did they contribute to the fox's associations with Inari.

The earliest sources of fox practices

In looking for the origins of Inari and Shinto beliefs, D.C. Buchanan has looked to the origins of the Japanese people themselves. It is believed that the Japanese people can trace their roots to three sources: the Proto-Caucasian strain, coming through the Ainu, the Tungusic-Mongolian strain, coming from Siberia and travelling through China and Korea, and the Proto-Malay strain, coming through the Malayan people. Of these, the first two are important to my question.

In both of these prehistoric cultures, we can see many elements that bear similarity to modern Japanese Shinto beliefs. Through this we can trace the origins of many aspects of Japanese and Chinese belief systems. For example, in Siberian shamanism, one divination practice involved interpreting the cracks in the scorched shoulder-blade of a sheep. In China, a similar practice involved interpreting the cracks in a scorched tortoise shell. Finally in Japan, the cracks in a scorched deer shoulder-blade were examined . Looking at the Ainu, we see similarities in the Ainu worship of grain gods, and their system of Kamui bears a remarkable resemblance to the Japanese system of Kami. A more comprehensive comparison of the similarities of these belief systems is not necessary for my question, but these examples should show that many Japanese beliefs and practices may have their origin in these two prehistoric cultures.

More important here is the fox practices that were observed in the Siberian and Ainu cultures. In Siberia, the fox was considered a supernatural animal that could bewitch people and cause harm, its passing being a bad omen, similar to much of Chinese fox belief, and part of the dual nature of Japanese fox belief. We can even see in Siberian beliefs an origin for this dual nature. The Siberian legend of Altin Shagow tells of a hero shooting a yellow fox that crossed its path. The arrow cut the fox in two; the hind part sank to the ground, while the other half rose to the heavens and became a divine fox. Evidently, this divine fox was to inform its father of the shooting, who then destroyed Altin.

Fox legends in the Ainu culture were even more important. Like in Siberia, the fox was believed to hold supernatural powers, and the practice of binding a fox's mouth to prevent it warning other beasts if it was the first kill of a hunter bears a passing resemblance to the Altin legend. Ainu foxes, like elsewhere in the region, were renowned for their shapechanging powers.
Again the dual nature of the supernatural fox is prominent. Red, thin-haired foxes were considered demons, and it was believed that they could change forms in order to bewitch people, similar to the shapechanging foxes of China and Japan. The red fox was known to possess people and cause illness and madness, as in Japanese and Chinese beliefs.

The other kind of fox was the dark-coloured fox, believed to be benevolent, and prayed to by the Ainu in order to receive its assistance and help. The skull of the good fox was used for divination and protection. Again, this reflects the early fox beliefs of the Japanese, and though little mention is made of it in available literature, it is also reflected in Chinese practices, as we will soon see.

The fox's associations with magic and sorcery.

Throughout the region, the fox was known as a creature with supernatural powers from the earliest of times. What was it about the fox that inspired such associations? De Groot suggests that the fox’s natural cunning and shrewdness, whilst carrying such a gentle, harmless demeanor, lends itself well to the fox’s role as a trickster. Indeed, even here, there is a sense of the dualistic fox.
Smyers, quoting Macdonald, explained this idea better:

Although they live almost everywhere, often quite close to humans, foxes can be “elusive to the point of invisibility.” But when they are in fact visible to their human neighbours, they prove to be fascinating, intelligent, infinitely adaptable, playful, and mysterious.

Furthermore, the fox’s propensity to dwell in old graves seems to have gained the fox associations with death and anthropomorphosis , though this seems to have been a phenomenon particular to China.
Perhaps more significant were the associations built up by the fox’s running around in the fields, which, in many places, led to a belief in the fox as the spirit of rice or grain.

Wherever the associations came from, it seems certain that something about the fox lent itself well to notions of magic and spirithood. These notions, of course, remained throughout the fox’s long development, and even today, it is this that makes the fox stand out in the folklore of the region.